Delivering Skills for LifeThe national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skillsA Framework for Understanding DyslexiaInformation on theories and approaches to dyslexia and dyscalculiaPublished by the Department for Education and SkillsThis document was produced as part of a project to research approachesto teaching and learning with dyslexic learners in adult literacy, numeracyand ESOL provision undertaken in 2003–04. The project was jointly led bythe Learning and Skills Development Agency and NIACE on behalf of theDepartment for Education and Skills.A web version and additional materials can be found at: www.dfes.gov.uk/readwriteplus/understandingdyslexiaThe Learning and Skills Development Agency and NIACE would like tothank all who contributed to the project.© Crown Copyright 2004Extracts from this document may be reproduced for non-commercial ortraining purposes on condition the source is acknowledged.Images on the cover and throughout this publication were taken fromvideo footage of sessions between teachers and learners.Edited and produced by NIACE, LeicesterTypeset by Boldface, London EC1Cover design by Big Picture Interactive, Leamington SpaPrinted by Newnorth Print LtdContentsSkills for Life: the national strategy for improving adult literacy and 1numeracy skillsWhat is the Framework and who is it for? 3Introduction 5What is dyslexia? 5The ‘deficit’ versus ‘difference’ models of dyslexia 6How does dyslexia affect learning? 7What do we know about dyslexic adult learners and their approach to learning? 8How might you recognise a learner with dyslexia in your group? 11What should you do if you think a learner might have dyslexia? 12When should you refer a learner to a specialist? 13What can you do to help people with dyslexia to learn? 13How is dyslexia assessed? 17What are the differences between dyslexic difficulties with maths and dyscalculia? 20How does dyslexia affect maths? 21What do we know about dyscalculia? 24Theories of dyslexia 31Making sense of the different theories 31Summary of theories 32Biological theories32Cognitive theories33Social interactive theory34What do theorists agree on? 35Where are there areas of disagreement? 36Approaches and programmes used by specialists 39Structured cumulative approaches 41Person-centred approaches 48Physiological approaches 57Approaches using technology 68Resources 75Theory tables: more detailed information on theories of dyslexia 76Further reading: where to find out more about dyslexia and dyscalculia 115Practical guides115Theoretical but accessible texts119Academic texts123Glossary 129Index 137many crossings out and making itdifficult to get ideas down on paper).•Difficulties in recognising, orconfusion between, letters orfamiliar words when reading orremembering the visual image ofwords, signs, or symbols.•Mispronunciations caused bydifficulties in discriminatingbetween sounds.•Difficulties in reading text causedby visual distortions such asblurring or moving letters.•Problems with sequencing such aswith instructions and mathematicalprocedures or sequences ofnumbers or letters and difficultiesusing dictionaries, encyclopaediasand directories.8INTRODUCTION‘You have got the ideas exactlylike a painter, you know exactlywhat colours you want touse...but if you come to put iton paper, it is very different, it isa nightmare.’‘I forget things a lot. Short-termforgetfulness normally. Sillythings like forgetting my buspass, travel card...getting on atrain and getting off the otherend and I’ve got no pass withme, so I have to go back.‘Learners with dyslexia‘I find that sometimes, if I’m notreally concentrating on what I’msaying, when I’m speaking, Imanage to get the order in whatI’m saying jumbled up. I soundlike Yoda!’Learner with dyslexiaWhat do we know aboutdyslexic adult learners andtheir approach to learning?Most of what we know about dyslexiarelates to the effect it has on thelearning of language and literacy skills– but it can also create difficulties withmaths. Adults with dyslexia are individualsand come to learning with their ownhistories, ambitions and abilities. Theywill be at different levels and havedifferent learning needs. They willhave some problems in common withother adult learners, but many thatappear specific to their dyslexia.Within their dyslexia they will have anindividual profile of strengths andweaknesses, and strategies they havedeveloped to deal with these. Unlike young children, adults havealready developed physiologically aswell as psychologically and thisincludes the neurological ‘pathways’for processing visual and auditoryinformation. They will have had todevelop compensatory strategies fortheir weaknesses in perceiving orprocessing written language, for theirmemory difficulties and otherproblems. Some of these will behelpful, but others may need to beunlearned in order for adults to makeprogress.Compensatory strategies may includerelying heavily on long-term memory.Long-term memory is based onmeaning, so adult dyslexics oftenhave a very personalised approach toremembering. This may involvepattern or colour; or it may involvemnemonics that relate to theirpersonal associations. Other compensatory strategies mightbe the use of holistic or ‘global’learning approaches. Such learnersoften learn best if they can see thewhole before trying to understand theparts; they may be thought of as‘grasshoppers’ rather than‘inchworms’. The inchworm takes astep-by-step approach to solvingproblems; the grasshopper makes9INTRODUCTION‘I just could not realise why thesereally bright lads, they were soclever at avoiding reading andwriting. I thought they’re bright,but they can’t read and write, soit’s obviously not because theyare stupid, because they are verygood in their primary subject.’Teacher who went on to becomea dyslexia specialist‘Words move around the page.They’re always moving, especiallynumbers. Numbers are terrible.’‘...numeracy is something I’vealways tried to avoid because it’san issue for me...I don’tremember the rules for how todo sums.’Learners with dyslexiaMore detailed advice for teachers ofliteracy and numeracy will be found inAccess for All, Broadening AccessandMaking the Curriculum Work for Learnerswith Dyslexia, which relate to the adultliteracy and numeracy core curricula.This Framework draws from Access forAll, but does not duplicate the detailedinformation to be found there. General principles of goodpracticeThe following are some generalprinciples to follow when providingteaching or support to dyslexic learners:•Be explicit – dyslexic learners areoften very literal.•Explain the reason for suggestingany approach and encouragelearners to evaluate whether or notit works for them – they may notyet know how they learn best. •Create an environment wheremaking mistakes is seen as part ofthe learning process.•Teach (choose activities, preparematerials, set tasks) to the level ofdifficulty the learner has, butinteract with the learner at theirlevel of intelligence.•Tell learners in advance what thestructure of any learning session willbe.•Explain the conventions; dyslexiclearners need to know when arequirement is simply a convention,such as the layout of an essay or anewspaper article, or spellingpatterns that do not seem logical.Involve learners in their learning:•Listen carefully to what dyslexiclearners tell you about theirlearning. How they describe theprocesses of reading and writingwill tell you a lot about theirdifferent approaches.•Help learners to understand dyslexiaby exploring their strengths and thestrategies they use.•Explore their typical difficulties(many of which will be commonwith other learners) and what hasand has not worked in the past.•Promote self-confidence by givinglearners the experience of successand positive feedback. •Use approaches that encourageself-directed and independentlearning so that learners feel incontrol of their learning.14INTRODUCTIONOur present understanding ofdyscalculia and its effect on learningmathematics is more limited than ourunderstanding of dyslexia and itseffect on learning mathematics.Current definitions are primarilydescriptions of the characteristics ofparticular learners. They offer littlehelp to practitioners in understandingthe causes. The lack of an ability torecognise numerosity may be inborn.Wedo know, however, thatindividuals can acquire through braininjury what we might label‘dyscalculia’, that is, the loss of theability to recognise numerosity.Some researchers suggest that theremay be several subsets ofmathematical difficulties other thanthe number-based definition ofdyscalculia given above, althougheach of these would require furtherinvestigation. They include difficultiesin:•procedure and sequencing•algebra•geometry•trigonometry.There is, to date, little or no specificresearch into difficulties in these areas,although research into difficulties withnumerosity may shed more light onthem. How common is dyscalculia?Findings in studies into the incidenceof difficulties in basic number skillsrange from about 6 to 7% of school-age children (Gross-Tsur, Manor andShalev, 1996; Badian, 1983; Kosc,1974) to 3.6% (Lewis et al., 1994),but these figures do not separatelearners with maths difficulties fromlearners with maths and literacydifficulties. The research by Lewis et al.(1994) using nine to ten-year-oldsincluded the finding that 1.3% ofchildren of normal ability had specificarithmetical difficulties, but normalreading. There is currently no assessment toolavailable to teachers for dyscalculiaand those educational psychologistswho are interested in the field haveonly the standard psychology testsused for literacy assessment.This means that at present we have noway of knowing how many learnersmay have dyscalculia.26INTRODUCTIONDiagnosing dyscalculia in adultlearnersA recent computerised screening testfrom Professor Brian Butterworth isavailable for children and this is due tobe followed by one for adults.Butterworth is a leader in this field ofresearch and his screening test isbased on his current definition ofdyscalculia. Further assessment andscreening tools from other researchersmay be forthcoming. In themeantime, diagnosing dyscalculia inadult learners presents particularchallenges. The maths that most adults retain afterthey leave school is the understandingof number. Once we leave school, themaths ability we retain is increasinglydirected by our needs. Most adults donot need to use algebra ortrigonometry. We do, however, needbasic numeric ability to:•add and subtract, multiply anddivide•work with simple fractions,decimals and percentages•adapt these topics to cope withmoney, weights, measurement,bank statements, timetables and soon.Our other mathematical knowledgetends to fade because we are notpractising it regularly. Therefore,because it relates to difficulties withnumber, dyscalculia might beexpected to have a significant impacton adult learners. But identifying it clearly is not easy.Adults use strategies such ascalculators for convenience and speedwhen making calculations. The use ofsuch strategies means that the timewe need to perform such calculationswithout the calculator increasesbecause of our lack of practice. Adults’performance on a test for difficultiesin maths might be slower and poorerthan their actual ability – with a bit ofrevision and practice. This makes suchtest results unreliable as assessmentsof ability.How can you help learners withdyscalculia?There are no comprehensive answersto this question. At present teacherscan only do their best with theknowledge and tools available.Like dyslexia, dyscalculic symptomsmay be aggravated by low ability,poor health, poor teaching,27INTRODUCTIONinterrupted schooling and emotionalor social problems. These aspectsneed to be understood and addressedby teachers. However, as weunderstand it at present, dyscalculia isnot the result of any of the above.Dyscalculia will persist despite thedisappearance of these problems.What teaching methods work forlearners with dyscalculia?There is at present no research on theway that dyscalculic learners are mosteffectively taught and supported.Currently the recommendation is thatgood practice for dyslexic learners isdrawn on in teaching dyscalculiclearners. Teaching should bestructured, cumulative andmultisensory, allowing time for thelearner to see, say and do. However, itmay well be that dyscalculic learnersare those for whom even suchmethods may not work.In his book The Mathematical Brain(1999), Butterworth links the use offingers to the development of basicnumber skills and describes howdyscalculic learners rely on countingon fingers to perform even thesimplest calculation. It may be that anapproach that develops this strategycould offer the beginnings of acompensatory approach. Othermultisensory techniques used indyslexia or dyscalculia may also beuseful. In the Davis method, forexample, learners use clay to makenumber arrays and to form the digitsthemselves. However, to date, no research existsto indicate whether any method orapproach is really successful. Self-confidence and self-esteemAn important consideration in mathsand dyslexia or dyscalculia is self-confidence and self-esteem. Thestrongest predictor of an individual’sperformance in maths is theindividual. Those who succeed in28INTRODUCTIONmaths have the confidence to takerisks to solve a new problem. A learnerwith a low, or non-existent, successrate will only tackle problems withintheir known success range. Thismeans there may be little or noprogress in learning.Often, therefore, working withdyslexic/dyscalculic learners will meanlooking at the confidence and self-esteem of the learner before anyteaching can take place. Work needsto be structured to begin at a level atwhich learners can succeed and thenmove, slowly, step by step, into newor previously unsuccessful areas.RelevanceMost individuals with dyslexia can seethe need to develop their reading andspelling skills, but many adults whohave difficulties with maths cannotsee the relevance of basic numeracy.Maths and numeracy teachers mayhave to spend time showing howcentral number is to adult life.Teaching materials and activities needto be clearly relevant to each learner. 29INTRODUCTION31THEORIES OF DYSLEXIATheories ofdyslexia This section is written for literacy,numeracy and ESOL teachers who arenot dyslexia specialists. It provides anoverview of current theories ofdyslexia. Some theoretical background willenable tutors to understand thenature of the difficulties faced bydyslexic learners and how these mightinfluence approaches to teaching andlearning. This section also provides abasis for further study andprofessional development. There are many different theories ofdyslexia. Individual researchers pursueparticular avenues of exploration. It isimportant to remember that researchis ongoing and that our knowledge isstill partial. It might be assumed that dyslexiatheories have led to the developmentof associated teaching and learningapproaches, but this is not always so.Teaching and learning approacheshave often been developed fromobservation and experimentation bypractitioners themselves; the linksbetween theory and practice are notstraightforward. Making sense of thedifferent theoriesIt is generally argued that thedifficulties associated with what wecall dyslexia are caused bydevelopmental abnormalities. Butthere is no consensus among expertson a definition of dyslexia – nor isthere agreement on its exact causes. There is a way of thinking aboutdyslexia which helps to understandthe complexity. It is known as a“causal modelling framework” (Frith,1997). This framework, which iswidely used, suggests that three levelsof description are useful for a betterunderstanding of dyslexia:•Biological (genetics and neurology)•Cognitive (information processing) •Behavioural (primary characteristicssuch as reading and spelling).A summary is provided below oftheories of dyslexia at the biologicaland cognitive levels. There are alsotables in the Resources section (p.75)that chart the current theories and•Thompson, M.E. and Watkins, E.J (1996) Dyslexia, A Teaching Handbook.London: Whurr.•Wilkins, A.J. (1995) Helping reading with colour. Dyslexia Review 7(3): 4–7.•Wilkins, A.J. (2002)Reading Through Colour. Chichester: Wiley.•Yeo, D. (2003) Dyslexia, Dyspraxia and Mathematics. London: Whurr.Theoretical but accessible texts•Brooks, P. and Weeks, S (1998) A comparison of the responses of dyslexic, slow-learning and control children to different strategies for teaching spelling.Dyslexia4(4), 212–22•Butterworth, B. (1999) The Mathematical Brain. London: Macmillan.•Carter, R. (1998) Mapping the Mind. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.•Ellis, A. (1993) Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis. Sussex:Psychology Press Ltd.•Evans, B. (2001) Dyslexia and Vision. London: Whurr.•Evans, B.J.W. and Joseph, F. (2002) The effect of coloured filters on the rate ofreading in an adult student population. Ophthalmics and Physiological Optics 22:535–45•Fisher, S. and Smith, S. (2001) Progress towards the identification of genesinfluencing development dyslexia. In Fawcett, A.J. (ed.) Dyslexia: Theory andGood Practice. London: Whurr.•Galaburda, A. (1999) Development dyslexia: a multilevel syndrome. Dyslexia: AnInternational Journal of Research and Practice5: 183–92•Gathercole, S.E. and Baddeley, A.D. (1993) Working Memory and Language.Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.119RESOURCES•Hanley, J.R. (1997) Reading and spelling impairments in undergraduatestudents with development dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading(SpecialIssue: Dyslexia in Literate Adults) 20(1): 22–3.•Hughes, S., Kolstad, R.K. and Briggs, L.D. (1994) Dyscalculia and mathematicsachievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology21(1): 64–7.•Hutchinson, J., Whiteley, H., Smith, C. and Connors, L. (2001) Defining anddiagnosing dyslexia: The case of children with English as an additionallanguage. Proceedings of the BDA conference: Dyslexia: At the Dawn of the NewCentury, York 18–21 April 2001.•Joffe, L. (1990) The mathematical aspects of dyslexia: a recap of general issuesand some implications from teaching. Links15(2): 7–10.•Johnston, R. Anderson, M. and Duncan, L. (1991) Phonological and visualsegmentation problems in poor readers. In M. Snowling and M. Thomson (eds)Dyslexia: Integrating Theory and Practice. London: Whurr.•Miles, T. and Miles, E. (1999) Dyslexia: A Hundred Years On. Buckingham: OpenUniversity Press.•Nicolson, R. and Fawcett, A.J. (1994) Comparison of deficits in cognitive andmotor skills in children with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia44: 147–64.•Nicolson, R. and Fawcett, A.J. (1999) Developmental dyslexia: the role of thecerebellum. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice 5: 155–7.•Nicolson, R. et al. (1999) Motor learning difficulties and abnormal cerebellaactivation in dyslexic adults. Lancet353: 43–7.•Orton, S.T. (1925) Word-blindness in school children. Archives of Neurology andPsychiatry 14: 581–613.•Paulesu, et al. (1996) Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome?Evidence from PET scanning. Brain119: 143–57.•Pavlidis, (1990) Perspectives on Dyslexia in Neurology, Neuropsychology andGenetics, Vol. 1. Chichester: Wiley.120RESOURCES•Pennington, B.F. (1999) Toward an integrated understanding of dyslexia:Genetic, neurological and cognitive mechanisms. DevelopmentalPsychopathology11: 629–54.•Pugh, K.R., et al. (2000) The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: Task-specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex.Psychological Science11: 51–6.•Pumphrey, P.D. and Reason, R. (1991) Specific Learning Difficulties: Challengesand Responses.London: Routledge.•Ramaa, S. and Gowramma, I.P. (2002) A systematic procedure for identifyingand classifying children with dyscalculia among primary school children inIndia. Dyslexia8(2): 67–85.•Rippon, G. and Brunswick, N. (1997) Patterns of ‘Lateralisation and CognitiveDifferences in Dyslexic and Normal Readers’. Paper presented at the 4th BDAInternational Dyslexia Conference, 1–4 April 1997, York. [Cited in Mortimore, T.(2003)Dyslexia and Learning Style. A Practitioner’s Handbook. London: Whurr.]•Rippon, G., Brunswick, N. and Garner, S. (1997) Early CognitiveNeuropsychological Profiles and Development of Reading Skills. Paperpresented at the 4th BDA International Dyslexia Conference, 1–4 April 1997,York. [Cited in Mortimore, T. (2003) Dyslexia and Learning Style. A Practitioner’sHandbook. London: Whurr.]•Robertson, J. (1997) Neuropsychological Intervention in Dyslexia. Paperdelivered at the 4th BDA International Dyslexia Conference, 1–4 April 1997,York.•Sharma, M.C. (1986) Dyscalculia and other learning problems in arithmetic: ahistorical perspective. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics8 (3&4): 7–45.•Silver, L.B. (1987) The ‘magic cure’: a review of the current controversialapproaches for treating learning disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities20:498–505.121RESOURCES