Foreward

The sudden explosion of a bobwhite covey rising from the ground cover produces an exciting thrill, especially for a quail hunter. But because of extensive land development, there has been a reduction in the amount of habitat available for quail hunting. As a result, the number of hunting preserves in many states has grown rapidly in recent years. The use of quail as a food source, both for home and in many dining establishments, also continues to increase. To satisfy this growing demand, the production of game birds such as bobwhite quail has become a multi-million dollar industry.

This publication was developed to assist the seasoned quail producer, as well as to provide a sound base for the novice. It should provide basic information needed in the production of quail for a hobby or for business.

Getting Started

Management

In the poultry business, management abilities and practices determine the difference between success and failure. Management problems are far easier and cheaper to prevent than to solve, and the limited availability of effective disease treatments makes proper management an absolute necessity. It has been estimated that 80 percent of all health problems encountered by quail producers could have been prevented by close attention to sound management principles and details. Inexperienced growers should start with small numbers of birds, increasing flock size as experience is gained.

Remember that bobwhite quail are living creatures that are totally dependent on their caretaker for their well-being. If you cannot give the necessary attention and care to the quail, then the quail will suffer, the business will suffer, and you will suffer. Total commitment is the only way to success!

Marketing

Marketing possibilities, probabilities and plans should be determined before starting any new business venture. Many producers contract their production of birds and/or eggs for 1 to 2 years in advance. To be successful in marketing, you must produce a high quality product that consistently meets or exceeds the customer's needs. Repeat business and word-of-mouth advertising are the quail producer's best partners.

Laws and Regulations

In most states, there are rules, regulations and laws applicable to confinement rearing of game birds. A license or permit is usually required to keep quail in confinement, to exhibit them to the public or to operate a hunting preserve. For information, contact your local conservation officer or your state wildlife department. This information should be obtained before purchasing birds or eggs.

Any time quail are transported across state lines, they must be accompanied by a health certificate from a veterinarian. Contact the State Veterinarian in the state of destination for specific details.

Assistance

Assistance in game bird production is available from several sources, as listed in Table 1 . Your local county extension agent or soil conservation service agent can be an invaluable source of information. State extension specialists and state diagnostic laboratories should also be contacted for assistance. State, regional, and national game bird organizations usually offer conferences and publications that are useful.

Breeders

Stocks

There are several subspecies of bobwhite quail. The eastern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus virginianus) is the most common, both in the wild and in captivity. The eastern bobwhite has been reported to be larger in the northern states than in the southern states (6.9 vs. 5.9 ounces). Four other subspecies are generally recognized: plains bobwhite, masked bobwhite, Texas bobwhite, and Florida bobwhite. Many of the domestically grown stocks have been selected to some degree for size, appearance, egg production and hatchability. Several varieties are larger than those found in the wild.

Selection of Breeder Stock

The type of quail selected will depend to some extent upon the use that will be made of the birds. The larger varieties should be used when growing birds for meat purposes. These varieties are also better suited for home use and hobbyists because they tend to be more docile. The larger varieties usually lay fewer eggs than the small varieties. The small and moderate sized varieties (6 to 7 ounces or 170 to 200 grams) generally are desired when growing birds for hunting preserves because they usually fly better and faster than the larger birds.

The following points should be considered when purchasing hatching eggs or birds:

1. Obtain eggs or birds from producers with a good reputation.
2. Select stocks with a history of good egg production, hatchability and livability.
3. Hatching eggs should be uniform in size. Remove very large and very small eggs. Eggs should be clean, free from odd shapes and have a smooth shell without cracks or thin places. Check length and conditions of storage.
4. Newly hatched chicks should be alert, active, vigorous and free from abnormalities. Cull all weak, small, inactive chicks and those with curled toes or "spraddled" legs.
5. Check birds (and parents if possible) for uniformity in size, color and shape; check for abnormalities, injuries and feathering.
6. The birds should be free of disease. Check for past history of disease or mortality.
7. Select stock that has been blood tested for pullorum and typhoid and found to be clean.
8. Always start more birds than needed so that required culling can be done before final selection.

Future Breeder Stock

During the first season of egg production, it will be necessary to begin planning for the next season. Your breeders can be used again for two to three additional seasons. It should be noted, however, that each recycling of the breeders will result in lower egg production, lower fertility, lower hatchability, poorer chick quality, disease build-up and an increased breeder mortality rate. Close observation and culling should be carried out throughout each laying season. The breeders must be rested for a minimum of 3 months between each breeding season. Rest the birds by turning off the lights and providing a maintenance-level diet.

An alternative to recycling your breeder stock is to replace it with offspring from your current breeders. This will be the desired system for most producers. If genetic selection is to be practiced, this system will permit more rapid improvement of the stock. Use birds from hatches before the peak production period. These birds are usually stronger, healthier, more disease resistant and lay more eggs. In large breeder flocks, this type of selection and breeder replacement will not create any inbreeding problems. Small breeding operations (less than 200 pairs) will need to introduce unrelated breeder stock at least every third year.

It is possible to improve egg production in breeder stock without the necessity of pedigree production records. This is done by hatching succeeding generations from eggs laid at 5 to 6 months of production. In this way, breeder chicks are hatched from the old breeders that continue to lay well over a long production period. This is most successful with larger flocks that do not need periodic introduction of new stock.

The best way to introduce new breeder stock is by purchasing hatching eggs. If eggs are not available, day-old chicks can be purchased for future breeding stock. Only as a last resort should adult breeders ever be brought into an existing operation. The risk of introducing disease problems far outweighs any benefits that may be derived from the new blood lines. Any birds other than newly hatched chicks should be quarantined for at least 3 weeks to ensure the absence of disease. Whenever possible, purchase eggs or stock from dealers participating in the National Poultry Improvement Plan.

Breeding Systems

There are 3 options available for housing breeders: floor pens, colony cages, or individual cages. Floor pens ( Figure 1 ) are the least expensive and least desirable way to maintain breeders. The major disadvantages of floor systems are increased fighting, dirty eggs, an inability to identify non-productive birds and greater exposure to disease-causing parasites. Even with excellent sanitation and management, floor breeders will not produce as well as caged breeders. On the other hand, floor pen breeding allows more margin for error in feeding and watering because the birds can move from one feeder or waterer to another.

Placing breeders in cages with wire flooring greatly decreases the exposure to disease and produces clean eggs that are very easy to collect ( Figure 2 ). The cage system can be used for colony cages that house several females and males or for individual cages that house a single breeder pair. Colony cages are designed to hold a large number of breeders at male:female ratios ranging from 1:1 to 1:4. Although the front width is not important, the cages should not be any deeper (front to back) than 3 to 4 feet. This will permit easy removal of dead or cull birds and proper cleaning and disinfection. The cages should also have solid dividers (partial) every 3 to 4 feet to prevent the birds from piling in one end of the cage and to discourage cocks from fighting.

Individually pairing breeders makes possible the culling of unproductive or infertile birds and generally results in less fighting, mortality and egg breakage. Individual pairs are also necessary if you practice genetic selection involving pedigree records. This system is most expensive in that greater numbers of males are used, resulting in greater feed consumption and space requirements.

A male to female ratio of 1:1 produces the highest egg production, fertility, and hatchability, regardless of the system. Ratios of 1:2 or 1:3 will result in a lower number of chicks per hen but will produce a greater number of chicks per breeder (counting males and females).

Breeder Environment

Four major environmental factors that affect breeders are light, temperature, air quality and space.

Light stimulates the breeder's reproductive system which, in turn, initiates breeding. Under natural conditions, quail begin to mate in the spring in response to the increasing day length. By providing artificial light, you can bring the breeders into egg production at any time and maintain production throughout the year, regardless of the natural day length. Artificial lighting should provide 17 hours of light per day. More than 17 hours per day is unnecessary. If you are using a 17-hour day length and your birds are exposed to natural daylight, this will mean more hours of artificial light when the days are short and less when the days are long. One of the best light-control systems uses a time clock to turn the lights on in the morning and off at night, with an electric eye to turn the lights off at dawn and on at dusk within the schedule of the time clock setting. The light intensity should be approximately five foot-candles. This can be obtained by using 60-watt incandescent lights at 10-foot intervals. Never reduce the length or intensity of the light because this will result in a reduction or cessation of egg production.

In response to stimulatory light, some hens will begin egg production as early as 16 weeks of age, but most will begin production between 22 to 25 weeks of age. The eggs should reach settable size within 2 to 3 weeks. If the birds are older and larger when egg production begins, the initial egg size is larger and fewer difficulties (especially prolapsed oviduct or impacted eggs) are encountered. Eggs from young breeders often do not hatch well and the chicks have higher mortality. Near the end of the laying cycle, hatchability tends to decrease; therefore, many producers terminate production before severe declines occur.

For optimal egg production and feed efficiency, the breeders' environment needs to be maintained at a temperature between 50°F and 85°F. Lower temperatures cause an increase in feed consumption, and higher temperatures reduce egg production, fertility and hatchability. Sudden changes in temperature will also cause a decrease in production.

Air quality must be maintained by providing adequate ventilation to remove dust in the winter, heat and humidity in the summer and ammonia at all times. Ventilation should not cause drafts on the breeders or rapid changes in the temperature. If quail are kept on wire floors in raised pens and are exposed to the cold, drop curtains should be provided to prevent winter winds from circulating beneath the birds. Over-winter the breeders in pens of 20 or more birds to help provide adequate warmth.

While 1 square foot per bird should be allowed for birds in floor pens, ½ square foot per bird is adequate for those in individual or colony cages. Breeders should be provided with a minimum of 1 linear inch of feeder space and 1/3 linear inch of water space per bird.

Breeder Timetable

The entire breeder schedule is developed in reverse from the date that eggs from the breeders are needed.

1. Brood the breeders as described under Brooding (page 8).
2. Have the breeders tested for pullorum-typhoid disease. To reduce stress on the birds, the testing should be done before egg production begins. You can get a list of approved blood-testing agents from your local county agent or the Poultry Improvement Association in your state.
3. Pair the breeders 4 to 6 weeks before the natural laying season or at least 2 weeks before lights are provided. Natural laying seasons vary for different geographical areas, but the local wildlife conservation officer can provide the approximate times.
4. Move breeders to breeding facilities: floor pens, colony cages or individual breeder cages.
5. Beak-trim the breeders at hatch and, if necessary, before mating (see Cannibalism section, page 13).
6. Plan to increase artificial lighting 1 hour per week so that a 17-hour day length will be reached between 24 to 26 weeks of age.
7. Switch from grower feed to breeder feed 2 to 3 weeks before anticipated egg production or no later than when 5 percent production is reached.
8. When egg production drops below acceptable levels, end the breeding season by decreasing the lighting and returning to a low-level grower or maintenance diet. Following a 3-month rest, the breeders can be used again.

It is advantageous to keep individual records on breeders, so that those birds beginning egg production very late, laying at a low rate or having low hatchability can be culled early in the laying cycle. Egg production for a 6-month breeding season should average above 50 percent, or more than 90 eggs per hen. This will vary with strain of bird, lighting program, and other management factors. The best hens in the flock can produce 160 eggs during the 6-month season. When breeders are maintained under proper conditions for a full year, the average egg production will be from 150-200 eggs per hen.

Egg Care and Incubation

Egg Care

The eggs your breeders produce represent the final product of all the time, money and effort you have invested. Treat each egg as if it is the only one you have. The embryos within the egg are extremely sensitive to temperature, humidity and position. Remember, nothing you do can improve a hatching egg once it is laid. You can only try to preserve its quality after it is laid.

The eggs should be collected a minimum of 3 times per day to limit their exposure to conditions in the breeder house. The last pickup should be late in the day so that the eggs do not remain in the breeder house overnight. Discard all dirty eggs. Attempting to wash or scrub the eggs will remove the outer protective coating of the egg and allow increased contamination and water loss. The problem of soiled eggs should be resolved by improving management and sanitation in the breeder house. Eggs need to be stored with the small end down in a cooler with a temperature of 55°F - 65°F and a relative humidity of 75 - 90 percent ( Figure 3 ). A standard room air conditioner should not be used to cool the eggs. Air conditioners remove moisture from the air, which will dehydrate the eggs during storage. Commercial egg coolers that will maintain the proper temperature and humidity in the egg storage area are required ( Figure 4 ). Storing hatching eggs up to 15 days under ideal conditions will not severely reduce their hatchability. The eggs do not need to be turned during this time. Avoid moving eggs directly from the cooler to the incubator. Allowing them to sit at room temperature for 1 to 2 hours will allow a gradual temperature change that will reduce condensation on the eggs.

Egg Incubation

Determine the size and type of incubator needed for future business plans. Game bird equipment suppliers can assist with information about various makes and models of incubators

Quail eggs require about 24 days of incubation to hatch, and it is critical that incubator conditions be closely monitored during the incubation process. If the incubator is placed in a room with a constant environment between 65°F - 80°F, it will be easier to control the incubator environment. It is generally best to follow the incubator manufacturer's recommendations; however, it may be necessary to vary from these recommendations for optimal results. If the incubator contains trays, keep all trays, with or without eggs, in the machine at all times during operation to maintain proper air flow and more uniform temperature and humidity.

Both temperature and humidity need to be adjusted to a different setting after 20 days of incubation; therefore, a separate "hatcher" incubator should be used for the last 3 days of incubation ( Figure 5 ). This eliminates the need for changing the adjustments of the "setter" incubator.

For successful incubation, several factors must be closely controlled. The most important of these are temperature, humidity, ventilation, turning, egg position and sanitation. Temperature is by far the most critical. A temperature-monitoring system with an alarm that warns of abnormal conditions is of great value, since a temperature of 1°F - 2°F above or below optimum will cause a reduced hatch and poorer quality chicks. The temperature in a forced-air incubator should be 100.25 ± .25°F (but may vary with type of incubator) until the last 3 days before hatching begins. On day 21, the temperature should be decreased 1.0°F. Although hatchability will be lower in a still-air incubator (no air circulating fan), many people use incubators of this type for hatching small numbers of quail. Temperatures for still-air incubators are 103°F for the first 20 days and 100°F for the last 3 days. The temperature should be measured at 1/2 inch above the eggs.

Humidity is also important and is usually measured as wet-bulb temperature. It should be 86 - 88°F until the eggs are transferred to the hatcher, at which time it is increased to 90-92°F. Low humidity can result in late stage embryos that stick to the shell or die in the shell, as well as chicks that are smaller and weaker. High humidity can result in late stage embryos that die without pipping, navels that heal poorly, sticky chicks and large, sluggish chicks.

Adequate ventilation of the incubator room and incubators must be provided in order to furnish the proper amount of oxygen and to prevent a buildup of carbon dioxide. Ventilation requirements increase as embryo age increases. Recommendations of the incubator manufacturer should be followed closely.

Eggs should always be set with the small end down. During the first 20 days of incubation, the eggs should be turned a minimum of 3 times each day, but preferably 12 to 24 times per day. The eggs should be turned by rotating the trays from side to side at a 45 degree angle. Setting the eggs with the small end up or turning the eggs improperly causes dead embryos at various ages (especially during the last week) and malpositions (especially having the head in the small end of the egg).

The following is a summary of incubation conditions:

• Period of incubation: 23 - 24 days
• Incubator temperature, days 0 - 20: 100.25°F
• Hatcher temperature, day 21 - hatch: 99.25°F
• Humidity, wet bulb temperature, days 0 - 20: 86 - 88°F
• Humidity, wet bulb temperature, day 21 - hatch: 90 - 92°F
• Turning (times/day): 3 to 24
• Egg position: small end down

The incubator room, egg storage room and surrounding area should be kept clean. Washing and disinfecting these areas periodically will prevent the accumulation of dust and waste materials and the accompanying buildup of molds and bacteria. Keep all used boxes, egg flats, birds and other possible sources of contamination out of the hatchery. Incubators, hatchers and trays must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected after each hatch. Dirty incubators result in poor hatchability and poor chick quality. Dispose of hatchery waste materials immediately.

Fumigation with formaldehyde gas is an effective method of killing microorganisms in incubators and on eggs. Empty incubators (with trays) running at normal conditions should be fumigated for 3 hours with 0.6 grams potassium permanganate in 1.2 ml of formalin (40 percent formaldehyde) per cubic foot of incubator space. As soon as normal running conditions are reached after the eggs are set, fumigate for 20 minutes with 0.4 grams potassium permanganate and 0.8 ml of formalin per cubic foot of space. Do not fumigate eggs that have been set from 24 to 96 hours or when chicks are hatching. Precautions must be taken to prevent skin contact with formalin solution or the breathing of formaldehyde gas. It is important to have a good system of exhausting the gas from the room after fumigation. An incubation timetable is listed below.

Incubation Timetable

1. Clean and disinfect the incubator, hatcher and egg trays.
2. Two days before setting the eggs, start the incubator, allow it to reach operating conditions, and fumigate* it. Allow temperature and humidity to stabilize, then make any necessary adjustments.
3. Remove the eggs from the cooler and allow them to warm to room temperature. Discard any eggs that are dirty, cracked, misshapen or of extreme size.
4. Set the eggs in the incubator trays (small end down), allow incubator to reach operating conditions and fumigate* again.
5. Turn the eggs up to 24 times per day.
6. Monitor and record the incubator conditions frequently.
7. On day 21, either change the temperature and humidity in the incubator or move the eggs to the hatcher. Stop turning the eggs. The hatching trays should have a small mesh screen or rough paper in the bottom to keep the chicks from getting spraddled legs after they hatch.
8. Leave the chicks in the hatcher until they are completely dry.
9. Remove the chicks and place them in clean chick boxes that have rough paper liners.

*Note: Fumigation is not necessary with a small incubator.

You can expect 70 - 85% of all eggs set to hatch. There are, however, many factors other than incubation conditions that will cause hatchability to fall below this level.

Possible Causes of Poor Hatchability

Breeder Problems

1. Use of breeders that are too old.
2. Use of damaged (crippled, deformed or diseased) breeders.
3. Having an excess number of females to males.
4. Inbreeding for more than 3 years.
5. Improper lighting of breeders.
6. Allowing temperature extremes in the breeder house.
7. Use of old or poor quality feed.

Storage Problems

1. Leaving eggs in breeder house too long.
2. Storing eggs in dirty conditions or at incorrect temperature or humidity.
3. Storing eggs too long.

Incubation Problems

1. Rapid temperature change between cooler and incubator.
2. Improper or badly fluctuating temperature and humidity.
3. Incubator room temperature too high.
4. Improper turning of the eggs.
5. Poor sanitation.

Brooding

Brooding involves providing warmth, high quality feed, clean water and protection during the first 6 weeks of a quail chick's life. Proper management during this period can eliminate some of the health problems that occur later on. Current and future plans, as well as the availability and cost of fuel, will enter into a decision about which type of brooding system to use.

The brooder building should be built so that it can be closed in cold weather and opened for ample ventilation in hot weather. It should also be rodent-proof, with the floor and lower 3 feet of the walls having no cracks or holes of more than 5/16-inch wide. Brooding can be carried out in floor pens with either litter or raised wire floors. Floor pens with litter are the most common and least expensive. Wire-floored pens eliminate many disease problems but require a tighter house to eliminate drafts, and the birds are more prone to cannibalism ( Figure 6 ). Battery brooders will hold more birds per square foot of floor space, but difficult manure management and high cost have limited their use.

Heat for brooding can be provided by gas or electric brooders or infra-red heat lamps. Providing adequate feed, water and floor space is critical at all stages of production. Overcrowding and insufficient feed and water will result in higher mortality due to starve-outs, dehydration and cann